Connecticut - First In Flight?

Whitehead (2nd left) in front of No. 21 "The Condor"

Most students learn in school, as I did, that Orville and Wilbur Wright were the first to successfully make a sustained, controlled, powered, heavier-than-air human flight in an aircraft they built. Most also know this flight took place in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903. The string of adjectives is important because they were not the first to invent human flight, nor the first to even create controlled human flight. Still, the Wrights are so well known that the North Carolina license plate announces "First in Flight" to anyone taking a look. However, according to the state of Connecticut, this statement is no longer true.

Earlier this month the Connecticut State Senate passed House Bill No. 6671. Essentially, this bill paves the way for an annual holiday celebrating the Connecticut aviation industry. The bill is also designed to celebrate the achievements of a German immigrant named Gustave Whitehead, who some now claim was the true originator of the powered fixed wing aircraft and truly the first in flight. 

Although supporters of Whitehead have claimed for decades that his flight preceded that of the Wright brothers, recently the argument has been rekindled by the evidence and website of an Australian researcher named John Brown. According to Brown, Gustave Whitehead first successfully flew an aircraft, design No. 21, which he called the Condor near Bridgeport, Connecticut in the early morning of August 1901. If correct, he beat the Wright’s Kitty Hawk flight by more than two years.

Brown presents several pieces of evidence to support the case for Whitehead. First, he claims to have uncovered at least 110 newspaper articles between 1901 and 1902 which reported Whitehead’s flying success. One of the most well known of these articles was published in the Bridgeport Sunday Herald. The author, Richard Howell, describes witnessing Whitehead’s first manned flight on the Condor. Further, he lists at least three other witnesses to the event, Andrew Cellie, James Dickie, and a local milkman.

The Herald article did include a photo of Whitehead and a drawing of the Condor in flight, which was supposed to have been based on a photograph taken at the scene. Of this original picture, Brown says it has been lost. Still, he claims to have now uncovered a copy of this visual evidence by examining the background of a separate panorama photo taken in 1906 at the first exhibition of the Aero Club of America. This photo shows a glider hanging from the ceiling in front of a wall containing photographs of what appear to be other aircraft. Several of these photos, according to Brown and other researchers, show aircraft built by Whitehead. One of them, Brown insists, shows the Condor in flight.

Drawing from the Bridgeport Sunday Herald

Though most of these background photos are unrecognizably blurred, Brown sites two articles, one published in a 1906 edition of Scientific American as evidence that he has found the correct picture. The articles describe the same wall of photos shown in the picture. According to the author, one of the wall photos showed “A single blurred photograph of a large birdlike machine propelled by compressed air . .constructed by Whitehead in 1901.” The author also goes on to say that this was the only photo of an airplane in flight.


Panorama of the Aero Club Exhibition - Whitehead section enlarged
From Wright-Brothers.org

On his website, Brown compares several of these photos with pictures of aircraft known to have been built by Whitehead. Indeed, he seems to prove that the majority of the pictures are not those referenced in the Scientific American article. However, Brown next examines one of the most blurred images to the drawing created for the Bridgeport Herald in 1901. Ultimately, Brown concluded that there were remarkable similarities between the two images. Enough similarities, in fact, to conclude the blurred image in the panorama photo is the long lost photo taken in Connecticut in 1901.



John Brown's comparison - Do these images show the same event?

Though the image Brown compares to the Bridgeport drawing is very unclear, Brown points out that it does seem to be situated with other Whitehead pictures, it does seems to show an aircraft above the ground, looks vaguely similar to other picture of the Condor, and is located pretty much in the same place as the mystery photo described in Scientific American. Therefore, he deduces that this blurred image must be the picture described in the article. Based on the evidence given, he surmises that Whitehead did fly before the Wright brothers.

Additionally, Brown goes on to explain that Whitehead next built an aircraft he called No. 22, with which he performed even longer flights. Brown sites the affidavits and statements from at least 17 witnesses to support the flights of No. 22. Replicas of this plane have been flown in both Germany and the US in more recent times.

Though there seems to be substantial evidence that Whitehead actually flew in 1901, others disagree. Tom Crouch, at the Smithsonian Magazine site critiques the Whitehead case. According to Crouch, who is the director of the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, there is not enough evidence to support that the 1901 flight actually took place.

First, Crouch examined the written account published in the Bridgeport Herald. In the article, the author listed at least three witnesses to Whitehead’s flight. However, in 1936 a researcher from Harvard University named John Crane returned to Bridgeport in order to investigate the 1901 event. Crane could only find a single person who claimed to remember Whitehead’s sustained flight as reported in the Herald.

Furthermore, no relation, neighbor, or friend of Whitehead could remember to have even heard of the prolonged flight Whitehead claimed to have made in August of 1901. The one witness who claimed to have seen this flight was deemed less than credible by Crane due to the profit the witness was set to receive upon the publication of a book about Whitehead.

According to Crouch, the 1936 investigators even attempted to interview the witnesses referenced in the Bridgeport Herald. One witness could not be found, nor did anyone remember him. The other witness denied having ever seen Whitehead fly in August of 1901. He even went as far as to suggest that the Herald invented the story.

Crane did seem to attempt investigate the Whitehead’s case fairly. He did find several witnesses in the village who claimed to have seen Whitehead actually fly. What they could not agree upon was the duration and height of the flights they saw. Therefore, Crane concluded that Gustave Whitehead might have actually made several short, un-sustained, manned flights. Based on eye witness accounts these flights ranged from as low as 4 feet to as high as 25 feet and lasted anywhere from several yards to over 60 yards. However, they were not the sustained, controlled, powered flight as described in the original article.

At this point, despite the bill the Connecticut legislature has passed, whether or not Gustave Whitehead flew before the Wright brothers is pretty unclear. There are conflicting witness reports, no real conclusive photographic evidence, and other pieces of historic evidence don’t lend credence to the August 1901 event. For instance, though Whitehead went on to become a designer of airplane engines, no other aircraft designed by Whitehead ever actually flew until recently.

Still others point to the conduct of Orville and Wilbur Wright as evidence of a conspiracy. The brothers were secretive and were embattled in lawsuits against competitors. Critics point out that the Smithsonian currently holds a contract with the estate of Orville Wright. The contract dictates that the Smithsonian would lose custody of the aircraft of the Wright brother’s should they ever declare that another was actually first to fly. I must agree, on the surface that does not give me confidence in the unbiased historic opinion of the Smithsonian Institution on this matter.

However, I personally love this controversy. It demonstrates how history is constructed, de-constructed, and re-constructed. The very essence of this conflict stems from differing interpretations of the same sources, the sense of which I try to impart to my students all the time. Aspects of the arguments used on both sides of the issue are fascinating and at least sound enough to convince the law makers in Connecticut to legislate the recognition of Gustave Whitehead as the father of aviation. Perhaps the missing original photograph taken by the Bridgeport Sunday Herald, key to the entire argument, will eventually turn up. Until then, I am not convinced New England was first in flight. That honor remains with the Wright brothers and with the state of North Carolina.

Wicked Yankee Abroad - The Battle of Bentonville, NC

Well, I was really outside of New England this week. Instead of exploring Yankee history, I was on a long road trip visiting relatives in Florida. However, driving from Cape Cod to Florida did allow me to experience some pieces of history I generally do not get a chance to. Although time was a factor, so I could not spend days stomping around the south, my wife and I did make a stop at a Civil War battlefield while traveling through North Carolina. I lucked out in this instance because this battle actually had a Yankee connection. As I was to learn, one of the most Wicked Yankees of them all, General William Tecumseh Sherman, once blazed his way through this particular area of North Carolina. In that time, he participated in a conflict which would help decide the fate of the Carolinas, the Battle of Bentonville.

From November to December of 1864, a Union Army led by General William Sherman burned and destroyed its way from Atlanta to Savannah Georgia. Sherman’s army not only destroyed military targets but was also aimed at crippling southern industry and civilian infrastructure. They burned civilian property and destroyed southern railroad in an attempt to cripple the south physically and psychologically. In a letter to General HW Halleck, Sherman justified his tactics of total war.

"We are not only fighting hostile armies, but a hostile people, and must make old and young, rich and poor, feel the hard hand of war, as well as their organized armies. I know that this recent movement of mine through Georgia has had a wonderful effect in this respect. Thousands who had been deceived by their lying newspapers to believe that we were being whipped all the time now realize the truth, and have no appetite for a repetition of the same experience."

In short, Sherman wanted to make sure that the south lost their morale and their will to fight against the Union. In addition, he wanted to ensure that the people of the Confederacy could never again gather the support necesarry to rebel. For his actions, I believe Sherman is disliked throughout the south.


General William Tecumseh Sherman

After the capture of Savannah, Sherman was ordered by Ulysses S. Grant to transport his army to Virginia in order to end Grant’s stalemate with Robert E. Lee. However, within the Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman, Sherman records a letter he sent to Grant in December of 1864. Sherman believed that transporting his army north by sea would disrupt the morale and unity of his men. He believed his armies could do more by destroying Confederate railroads in a march through the Carolinas. Sherman expressed to Grant that he wanted to end the war as quickly as possible. He guessed that Robert E. Lee would remain in Richmond, but also believed he would be able to handle Lee if he ever left the Confederate capital. If not, he also knew Grant would then pin Lee’s army between them.


General Ulysses S. Grant
Commander of the Union forces



Robert E. Lee
Commander of the Confederate Forces



On March 8 of 1865, Sherman’s army crossed into North Carolina, their goal was to reach Goldsboro by passing through Fayetteville. Sherman knew that Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston was gathering rebel forces in the Carolinas to stop the advance of the Union army. In reaching Fayetteville on March 11, parts of Sherman’s army encountered and skirmished with several Confederate leaders.

General Joseph E. Johnston

As Sherman’s army destroyed Confederate weapons, railroads, and fortifications, The General continually expressed resentment for the people of the Carolinas. In his letters to Grant and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, Sherman states that the people of the Carolinas should never again be trusted to amass weapons at their own discretion.

After just participating in a serious battle at Averysboro, Sherman believed that Johnston would not make any serious opposition. However, while five miles outside of Bentonville on March 19, Sherman was notified that a division of his army commanded by General Henry Slocum had just encountered the combined forces of General Joseph E. Johnston’s army. Sherman sent command to Slocum to fight defensively until Sherman could arrive with reinforcements.

According to General Johnston’s Narrative of Military Operations Described During the Late Wars Between the States, Johnston overestimated the distance between the two wings of Sherman’s army. He believed it would take about a day’s march to combine Sherman’s forces. This would prove to be incorrect. However, on the first day of battle, the Confederates were successful in holding the advance of the Union army.

According to Sherman’s memoirs, he and General Johnston spent the next day deploying their armies. Johnston’s army was formed into the shape of a "V" enveloping the village of Bentonville. Sherman’s forces, already split into two wings, engaged both sides of the Confederate force. As a heavy rain began, both armies prepared for battle.

Looking out over the battlefield from the Confederate side

According to Johnston, he knew that he was vastly outnumbered. He spread his forces thin to match the Union front in order to appear as an equal force. About noontime March 21, Sherman ordered the whole rebel line to be engaged in a strong skirmish fire. In his memoirs Sherman admits that he should have immediately begun a general battle. However, he also admits that he misjudged how strong Johnston’s forces were. While in reality, Sherman commanded around 60,000 men, Johnston led around only 21,000.

Examples of equiptment and weapons used at Bentonville
Courtesy of the Battle of Bentonville Visitor's Center

Confederate soldier's equiptment at Bentonville
Courtesy of the Battle of Bentonville Visitor's Center

Although the Confederates were successfully holding their position, Johnston began to understand he and his army were in danger. Therefore, before daybreak on March 22, he ordered that his forces retreat across the creek to their rear. Sherman detected the retreat too late. In addition, seeing the roads now clear to Goldsboro, he failed to follow and engage Johnston because he was still unsure of the strength of the Confederate forces.

Sherman reported that his loses over three days of battle were around 1,604. According to Johnston, over the course of three days 223 confederates were killed, 1,467 were wounded, and 653 were either missing or captured. The site North Carolina Historic Sites, lists the Federal loses at 1,527 and Confederate loses at 2,606. Although Johnston might not have known it, this battle would be his last chance to stop Sherman’s army in North Carolina. In addition, this was Sherman’s best chance to defeat and capture most of Johnston’s combined forces. Thus, hastening the end of the Civil War.



This 19th Century farmhouse was used as a battefield hospital



A row of unmarked graves of Confederate soldiers from Bentonville

However, according to Sherman’s own writing, he was very focused on capturing Goldsboro, hoping that he could continue to cripple any supply lines supporting General Lee in Richmond. He believed this would either force Lee's surrender or force him to march out of Richmond to confront the Union army. Ultimately, he believed his actions were bringing the war to a close as quickly as possible. In addition, he believed his tactics would destroy the morale and combat capabilities of the southern people for years to come.

As for Johnston, he knew that he was greatly outnumbered in Bentonville. In his narrative, he does not speak about defeating Sherman at this point. Rather, he and his army were fighting just to maintain a standstill. Retreat was his best option and definitely saved lives at that point.

The Civil War ended only a few months after the action at Bentonville. After Robert E. Lee surrendered his army at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9 1865, General Johnston and General Sherman met at a small farm in North Carolina. After Johnston's surrender Sherman issued ten days of rations to the starving Confederate soldiers who had once been enemies. Both men carved out moderately successful lives following the war and seemed to have earned a respect for each other. They maintained contact through friendly letters and even occasionally met for dinner. It is said that Johnston would not hear an unkind word said about Sherman in his presence.

When General Sherman died in New York City in February of 1891, General Johnston served as a pallbearer at the military procession following his funeral. It was reported to be a very cold day and Johnston refused to wear his hat, presumably out of respect for Sherman. When one of Johnston’s friends, fearing that the now older General would catch a cold, ask him to wear his hat, Johnston is said to have replied, "If I were in his place, and he were standing in mine, he would not put on his hat." Unfortunately, Joseph E. Johnston did become ill and died of pneumonia about a month later.

As my wife, dogs, and I traveled north on I-95 I watched these important southern cities fly by from my window. I saw cities and landscapes that I had only really read about in history books or taught to my students when I used to teach American history. I wish we had more time to explore, but time was short. As a Yankee, I don’t often get to see Civil War battlefields. Even though sometimes the miles and hours felt long, I made an effort to remember that we were literally following in the footsteps of heroes who fought for their beliefs and for the survival of our country. I was absolutely reminded of this when I was able to visit the site of and learn about the Battle of Bentonville.